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We delivered 1 second of red light illumination to the head, tail, or both of transgenic animals expressing the light-gated ion channel Chrimson in the 6 gentle touch mechanosensory neurons (500-um diameter stimulus region, 30-second interstimulus interval). Multiple combinations of illumination intensities were used, but, here, only the 80 uW/mm2 intensity stimuli are considered (Fig 2). The system independently tracked or stimulated an average of 12 worms on a plate simultaneously (S1 Table, distribution shown in S1F Fig). Across four days, 95 plates were imaged using four identical instruments running in parallel, for a total of 74,693 stimulation events across all stimulus intensity combinations. A total of 43,418 stimulus events met our inclusion criteria for valid worm body shape and track length. Of those, there were 7,125 stimulus events with an illumination intensity of 80 uW/mm2, at least 1,500 stimulus events of each of the following conditions: head illumination, tail illumination, both, or neither. For comparison, Leifer and colleagues [26] used 14 stimulus events, a two-order of magnitude difference in sample size.
Performance is evaluated for the set of turning related experiments, including those in Fig 4, details of which are described in S1 Table. Subpanels are organized similarly to S1 Fig. For this set of recordings, 1-day-old animals were used, only worms with lengths 550 um and above were included in behavior analysis, and the mean number of tracked worms in a field of view per frame is 39. Machine-readable numerical values are listed in S6 Data.
Besides wrinkling patterns in nature, diverse functional micro/nano patterns can be obtained by traditional engineering approaches including photolithography and ion etching. However, the photolithography-based techniques are effective only to a few photoresists on planar surfaces, and the ion-etching method is extremely expensive and inefficient, which limits their applications in large-area micro/nano fabrications [23,24,25]. Moreover, the fabrication of high-aspect-ratio micro/nanostructures on non-planar surfaces via these techniques is still a challenge. Surface wrinkling of stiff coatings in layered systems are traditionally regarded as defects or failures in engineering [26,27,28]. However, these engineering defects in layered systems also provide inspirations for developing low-cost and highly efficient patterning techniques in material science and mechanical engineering [29,30,31,32,33,34,35]. In 1998, Bowden et al. [36] demonstrated that microwrinkles could be obtained by simply cooling a metal-coated polymer substrate, suggesting that the mechanical self-assembly could be a facile approach for micro and nano fabrications. In the past decades, the mechanical self-assembly of thin films in layered systems has been well developed for low-cost and highly efficient fabrications of micro/nanostructures using diverse film materials, such as inorganics [32, 37], metals [36, 38], polymers [30, 39], and novel carbon materials [33, 35]. Besides, the mechanical force that drives the assembly of films can be induced by chemical reactions (e.g., surface polymerization and surface oxidation) [30], or physical stimuli (e.g., thermal shrinking, prestrain releasing, and electronic actuation) [32]. Moreover, rich parameters can be used to manipulate the wrinkling of thin films on soft substrates, such as material properties of the film and the substrate, mismatch strain, and stress direction, enabling unprecedented control over the morphology and feature size of the patterns and structures for diverse applications such as flexible electronics [33, 40], cell culture interfaces [41, 42], reversible patterning [43,44,45], and super-wetting surfaces [46,47,48].
Superior properties of various wrinkled structures on curved substrates. a Wrinkling patterns can be generated on diverse microarchitectures with various geometries. b Crack-free highly compressed films can be obtained by simultaneous global deformations on curved substrates. c For closed hollow structures, wrinkle-to-smooth transition can be induced by reversible expansion and contraction. d Self-contact creases can be achieved on superelastic cylindrical fibers, where the contact area between neighboring creases can be tuned linearly by external strain. e Formation of highly convoluted interlocked structures that is capable of enhancing the bonding force between the film and the curved substrates
In many situations, stretchable materials with excellent chemical barrier and electromagnetic shielding property are critical for protecting the human body exposed to toxic chemicals and strong electromagnetic (EM) fields [249, 250]. Among the alternative materials, 2D graphene and MXene have been demonstrated to be promising candidates for chemical and electromagnetic shielding [251,252,253,254,255]. However, poor stretchability and the formation of defects may reduce their protective performance in practical applications. By transforming 2D materials into highly compressed and crack-free wrinkled microstructures, the flexibility of the film can be improved remarkably [55]. For example, stretchable highly compressed rGO films, inflatable hierarchically buckled CNTs, and crumpled MXene coatings have been fabricated by the deflation of latex balloons [61, 62, 64, 200]. These crumpled films have been demonstrated to be capable of protecting human body from chemical corrosion [61], electromagnetic radiation [62], and some of them can be used as inflatable devices including inflatable tumor ablation and inflatable antenna [64]. By coating MXene-SWNT films on inflated balloons, Li et al. [62] realized reversible crumpling of the MXene-SWNT coating by increasing the areal strain from 0 to 800%, and no damages were observed during the deformation process (Fig. 16a). The crumpled MXene-SWNT/latex bilayer was capable of attenuating electromagnetic absorption by the human body under both relaxed and stretching state (Fig. 16b). By using similar technical approach, Song et al. [61] demonstrated that the highly compressed rGO films have enhanced chemical stability compared with that of smooth ones (Fig. 16c, d). By coating a highly crumpled rGO film onto a latex balloon, the balloon remains inflatable even after contacting with dichloromethane for more than 2.5 h that is about 100 times longer than that for bare balloon (Fig. 16d). Recently, Liu et al. [64] fabricated several inflatable devices such as tumor ablation, volumetric sensor, and inflatable antenna by using latex balloons covered with highly convoluted CNT films. The obtained inflatable devices exhibited good stability under repeated inflation/deflation cycles. 2b1af7f3a8